Plenum Press, 1990. Apparently, the main cause of such a reduction of blood pressure and heart rate is the active inhibition of the baroreceptor reflexes during this phase of sleep. Such a configuration is subsequently compared to memorized patterns and then, and only then, it can be identified by means of the conscious process. physiological function. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. Green JD, Arduini A. Hippocampal activity in arousal. Ribeiro S, Goyal V, Mello CV, Pavlides C. Brain gene expression during REM sleep depends on prior waking experience. Mancia M. One possible function of sleep: to produce dreams. Sleep research: pictures from the early years. Hobson JA. Braun et al. Web5 Theories on dreaming . Xu Q, Xie H, Zheng D, Wu X, Zhang Y, Li T, Yan T. J Pers Med. Careers. Fortunately, thanks to this peculiar incomplete motoneuron inhibition we are able to record movements occurring in both humans and non-human animals and thus infer the presence of dreams. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). It is well known that the noise of an airplane usually does not awake people who live in the neighborhoods of airports but a light door creek may be enough to arouse them, as well as the groan produced by an infant child may arouse the parents, mainly the mother. 128. The atonia of myoclonia of active (REM) sleep. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. On Sleep and Dreams. 54. Penile erection, that also occurs in monkeys, is present during desynchronized (paradoxical or REMsleep) but it is not necessarily linked to erotic dreams. Expt Neurol 1976;53:328-38. Science 1978;201:269-72. Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. 26. Aristotle (1), who had carefully observed several animal species while asleep, noticed that movements of several of their body parts were quite similar to those performed by humans during dreaming. 107. The motor components of dreams are expressed as clearly different patterns, according to the dream content. Braz J Med Biol Res 1992;5:745-50. Plotting the amplitude of the Achillean reflex of cats during sleep Pompeiano (1967) found that while the animal coursed synchronized sleep, this stretch reflex was almost normal, only slightly reduced as compared to its intensity during wakefulness (41). (eds.) MeSH Mirmiran M. The function of fetal neonatal rapid eye movement sleep. 91. J Neurophysiol 1954;17:532-57. 37. Predicting Intention to Participate in Community Physical Activities for Adults with Physical Disabilities. WebAs the foregoing discussion of rival theories of dream function suggests, there are many findings that contradict the idea that dreams have any kind of physiological or Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. Such movements may take the sleeper to fall off the bed. The Psychology of Dreaming. Experimental study. Hence, experiments with such animals are extremely valuable and thus will be emphasized in the present review. 88. WebEssentially, during sleep the mind integrates new information acquired during the previous day into memory and processes it by making necessary connections. Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. The number of PGO potentials undergoes a high increase after the frontal ablation, which is suggestive of a tonic inhibition of these potentials by the frontal cortex. 112. From the spinal cord Marini (1997) recorded slow (delta) regularly oscillating waves during desynchronized sleep (81), which may be related to activation of spinal neurons during dreaming. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). It would appear that the intense activation of desynchronized sleep must overcome this demodulation and persist into subsequent waking, in order for very vivid dreams to be remembered. Generation of sleep is reasonably well known but not that of dreaming. Arch Ital Biol 1962;100:216-22. 7. 34. 49. Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. J Neurosci 1995;15:3500-8. Sigmund Freuds theory of dreams suggests that dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, wish fulfillment, and motivations. This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). Accordingly, they are known as PGO (pontine, occipital cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus) potentials. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Europ J Neurosci 1994;6:1298-1306. The authors concluded that the correlation they found was probably involved in memory consolidation but such coincidence may indicate that during dreaming memorized information is being revoked to integrate a given dreaming pattern. In ancient Greece, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle discussed about the meaning of dreams, concluding that the prevailing mistic and mythic concepts about them were incorrect. Usually r is very high between area 17 (visual cortex) and the hippocampus. Physiol Behav 1970;5:402-7. In humans, Hansotia and colleagues (34) found in humans, in accordance with our own observations in rats and cats, that oniric eye movements may be directed to one side or the other, not exclusively to one side, as stated by Vanni-Mercier and co-workers (29). Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. Clin Chest Med 1985;6:563-75. Klein M, Michel F, Jouvet M. tude polygraphique du sommeil chez les oiseaux. If the animal is kept alive by forced feeding and is kept warm, in six days frontal desynchronization and theta waves in the other cortical areas reappear and then not only wakefulness is fully recovered but also desynchronized sleep, including oniric activity. It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. Candia O, Favale E, Guissani A, Rossi G. Blood pressure during natural sleep and during sleep induced by electrical stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation. Brain Res 1967;5:221-35. Roldan E, Weiss TT. Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. 113. Valle AC, Pellarin L, Timo-Iaria C. Oniric patterns in the rat. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. The postynaptic inhibitory control of lumbar motoneurons during the atonia of active sleep: effect of strychnine on motoneuron properties. Time course of foslike immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. Lesion of the alpha coeruleus nucleus impairs the tonic motor inhibition; lesion of the pedunculo-pontine tegmental nucleus impairs the phasic motor inhibition (58,59). In rats penile erection in desynchronized sleep has also been detected and was found to cease after spinal transection; following mesencephalic transections that spare desynchronized sleep, penile erection was deeply reduced (11). These authors argue that despite the marked suppression of desynchronized sleep provoked by tricyclic antidepressants neither selective serotonine reuptake inhibitors and mono-amino-oxydase nor learning and memory are disrupted. 55. Not only theta waves do occur in the cerebellar cortex during desynchronized sleep but also spindles and delta waves are found in this organ in synchronized sleep, just as in neocortical areas. 79. Rados R, Cartwright RD. 24. The cycle of sleep in the rat (preliminary report). Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juveline rats. 97. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. Baldissera F, Broggi G. An analysis of potential changes in the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. Hernndez-Pen R, Ibarra GC, Morgane PJ, Timo-Iaria C. Limbic cholinergic pathways involved in sleep and emotional behavior. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1966;21:562-77. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. Electrophysiologically, it has been shown that the same type of hippocampal cells that are activated during training in a radial maze are also endogenously reactivated during sleep, which accounts for memory consolidation and for a close correlation between dreams and events preceding sleep (87). 84. Whereas Freud was convinced that dream forgetting was an active function of repression, Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) attribute the failure to recall a dream to a state-dependent amnesia caused by aminergic demodulation of the sleeping brain (120). In this preparation body temperature is not regulated anymore and the animal has to be artificially warmed at nearly 37C. It may be more appropriate to explain the latter authors' results by reasoning that dreams are originated in memorized information and are, accordingly, closely related to events occurring before sleep. 80. 108. Sleep 1982;5:169-87. REM sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness. The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. Chaudhuri A. Neural activity mapping with inducible transcription factors. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. The form and content of dreams is not random but organized and selective: during dreaming, the brain constructs a complex model of the world in which certain types of elements, when compared to waking life, are 100. 45. Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). In cats, Guazzi, Baccelli & Zanchetti (1966) demonstrated that due to such a cardiovascular hypoactivity the sensory afferents from glomus carotideus and glomus aorticus, that carry information from chemoreceptors sensitive to a decrease in oxygen blood concentration, attain an overwhelming relevance, inasmuch as following the transection of such afferents blood pressure goes continuously down during desynchronized sleep, leading to death (63). Problems with Physiological function Theory This does In cats, Baust (1971) recorded tachycardia starting 1 or 2 seconds before eye movements appear (38). When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. Front Neurol. Maquet et al. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. Such a recovery means that other mechanisms are put into action that are able to generate not only wakefulness but desynchronized sleep as well. In some mammals only one hemisphere at a time may be in desynchronized sleep. However, reflex penile erection is facilitated after spinal transection whereas mesencephalic transections significantly increase the latency to its reflex induction, without affecting the percentage of tests eliciting an erectile event. Mol Brain Res 1996;38:77-84. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. Intermediate state of sleep in the cat. 6. During a visual dream the eyes move (Figure 3) whereas during an auditory dream the middle ear ossicles (stapedius and tensor tympani) are activated (Figure 4). Some scientists take the position that dreaming probably has no function. During oniric activity, however, phasic increases in heart rate, blood pressure and ventilation do occur that are closely related to the dream that is going on. Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. 75. Pompeiano O. Mechanisms responsible for spinal inhibition during desynchronized sleep. A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur for the most part involuntarily during certain stages of sleep. They include facilitation of memory storage, 21. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. Kahn D, Pace-Schott EF, Hobson JA. The command character of theta waves is probably the reason why such potentials occur almost simultaneously in different brain structures. Ergebn. A comparison of presleep and REM sleep thematic content. An analysis of the supraspinal influences acting on motoneurons during sleep in the unrestrained cat. Vertes RP. Thermoregulation is impaired in desynchronized sleep (64) but it is unlikely that body temperature changes due to dreaming activity, inasmuch as variations of temperature are slow while dreaming is a fast pace phenomenon. The heart rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure rises. Before Eine Methodik der Ableitung localisierter Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten. J Biol Chem 1995;270:24361-9. Gadea-Ciria M. Plasticity of ponto-geniculo-occipital waves during paradoxical sleep after frontal lobe lesions in the cat. Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) do not take into consideration that a single object or a brief key fact or image occurring in the day preceding a given dream may be enough to trigger an entire dreamed "story" related to it (120). Considering that most dreams in rats (31,32) are related to olfaction, not to vision, potentials that resemble PGOs in the amygdala of this animal species should also be taken as signs of dreaming rather than PGOs. At the end of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity. Petersohn D, Schoch S, Brinkmann DR, Thiel G. The human synapsin II gene promoter. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. The reason why when we dream we are walking we do not get out of the bed and really walk, or when we dream we are talking to someone we do not really talk, is that neural circuits located in the neighborhood of locus coeruleus, in the pontine tegmentum, inhibit the motoneurons and do not allow the real movements to occur. Nofzinger EA, Mintun MA, Wiseman MB, Kupfer DJ, Moore Ry. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. Therefore, any neural event, be it running or just thinking, or dreaming, requires a large amount of oxygen, which is carried to the nervous system by the blood through powerful hemodynamic adjustments, such as increase in blood pressure, heart rate and central blood flow (21,25,26). Around 80 per cent of such motor activity was found to occur during desynchronized sleep, what points to its participation in dreaming activity. Reticulospinal and reticulobulbar tracts are involved in conveying to the motoneurons the impulses that cause oniric movements. 5. Depression of electrically induced reflexes (H- reflexes) in man during low voltage EEG sleep. 85. 22. Physiol Rev 1967;47:117-77. Shiromani PJ, Winston S, McCarley RW. Jouvet M. Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. Sleep Res 1973;4:65. 61. In: Klemm, W. R. & Vertes, R. P. This theory is supported by the fact that the body has decreased metabolism by up to 10% during sleep. Crick F, Mitchison G. The function of dream sleep. Rerum Natura, I et II. While humans dream around 100 minutes every night, cats exhibit signs of dreaming during nearly 200 minutes per day. In fact, when the voltage of each theta wave in one site is compared with the voltage in another site it is possible to assess the degree of coincidence or phase shift between the two sites. For sure, many even trivial daily events represent a threat to anyone and are certainly used as subjects for dreams not necessarily because of their emotional component. Several theories claim that dreaming is a random by-product of REM sleep physiology and that it does not serve any natural function. Physiol Behav 1972;8:363-71. Motoneuron inhibition is mild in the early post-birth days and increases according to a saturation curve (60). The posterior areas affected in this syndrome are the visual areas V3, V3a and V4 (97). 43. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. Oswald I. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies There are other definitions of the word dream, too. Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. 68. During normal walking the tibialis anterior and the gastrocnemius muscles are mobilized in opposition but when they contract as part of a dream their contraction may be in opposition (in some periods), what happens in normal deambulatory movements, or simultaneous (in subsequent or preceding periods), which does not occur in normal deambulation. Disclaimer. Science 1953;118:273-4. However, we still do not know why most motor units are inactivated while a few ones are mobilized, causing real but incoherent and non-efficient movements. Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. The subjects of dreams are broad-ranging and complex, incorporating self-image, fears, insecurities, strengths, grandiose ideas, sexual orientation, desire, jealousy and love". J Neurophysiol 1938;1:413-30. In this review, the neural circuits underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized. Brain Res 1996;770:192-201. In cats, Thomas & Benoit (18) have found oniric activity during synchronized sleep, similar to what we described in rats as pre-paradoxical sleep (19,20) as intermediate phase. It has, however, been utilized with a great success in sleep studies. Such periods were overlooked in the classic studies of Loomis and co-workets (13), in which they identified the phases of synchronized (another term coined by Adrian but now to label slow waves, i.e., potentials with a low frequency and a high voltage) sleep. Takakusaki K, Ohta y, Mori S. Single medullary reticulospinal neurons exert postsynaptic inhibitory effects via inhibitory interneurons upon alpha-motoneurons innervating cat hindlimb muscles. Axons from neurons of the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis descend along the ventral and ventrolateral funiculi and connect with inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord (55,56). Another fancy hypothesis is the one that proposes that we dream to forget, in order to delete "unwanted" information by reverse learning or unlearning (118). Although it has not been shown that the alpha-coeruleus nuclei are lesioned in these patients, it is tempting to consider that their lesion underlies such sleep disturbance. 134. 126. On the other hand, respiration usually undergoes a reduction in frequency and in frequency variation but during dreaming activity the respiratory frequency increases and becomes variable, which is certainly related to the temporal evolution of the oniric experience, as is the case during wakefulness. 64. In more recent years several approaches confirmed these findings (89). Foulkes D. A cognitive-psychological model of REM dream production. Pompeiano and his group produced important knowledge in this field (41,42), showing that the muscle contractions that produce the motor component of oniric behaviors, such as eye and limb movements, need that the pontine gigantocellularis nucleus be intact and activated. 29. Gottesman C, Gandolfo G, Zernicki B. Wish fulfillment, and motivations of active sleep: effect of strychnine on motoneuron properties time may in... Definitions of the neurophysiology of REM sleep inhibition is mild in the unrestrained cat expressed as clearly different,... 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